MPC
001 Solved Assignment 2021-22
COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY, LEARNING AND MEMORY
Course Code: MPC 001
Assignment Code: MPC 001/ASST/TMA/2021-22
Marks: 100
NOTE: All questions are
compulsory.
SECTION
– A
Answer
the following questions in 1000 words each.
3 x 15 = 45 marks
1.
Define cognitive psychology and describe the domains of cognitive psychology.
Cognitive psychology is that the scientific investigation of human
cognition, that is, all our mental abilities – perceiving, learning,
remembering, thinking, reasoning, and understanding. The term “cognition” stems
from the Latin word “ cognoscere” or “to know”. Fundamentally, psychology
studies how people acquire and apply knowledge or information. it’s closely
associated with the highly interdisciplinary science and influenced by AI ,
computing , philosophy, anthropology, linguistics, biology, physics, and
neuroscience.
History
Cognitive psychology in its modern form incorporates an interesting
set of latest technologies in psychology . Although published inquiries of
human cognition are often traced back to Aristotle’s ‘’De Memoria’’
(Hothersall, 1984), the intellectual origins of psychology began with cognitive
approaches to psychological problems at the top of the 1800s and early 1900s
within the works of Wundt, Cattell, and James (Boring, 1950).
Cognitive psychology declined within the half of the 20th century
with the increase of “behaviorism” –- the study of laws relating observable
behavior to objective, observable stimulus conditions with none recourse to
internal mental processes (Watson, 1913; Boring, 1950; Skinner, 1950). it had
been this last requirement, fundamental to psychology , that was one among
behaviorism’s undoings. for instance , lack of understanding of the interior
mental processes led to no distinction between memory and performance and did
not account for complex learning (Tinklepaugh, 1928; Chomsky, 1959). These
issue led to the decline of behaviorism because the dominant branch of
scientific psychology and to the “Cognitive Revolution”.
The Cognitive Revolution began within the mid-1950s when
researchers in several fields began to develop theories of mind supported
complex representations and computational procedures (Miller, 1956; Broadbent,
1958; Chomsky, 1959; Newell, Shaw, & Simon, 1958). MPC 001 Solved
Assignment 2021-22 psychology became predominant within the 1960s
(Tulving, 1962; Sperling, 1960). Its resurgence is probably best marked by the
publication of Ulric Neisser’s book, ‘’Cognitive Psychology’’, in 1967. Since
1970, quite sixty universities in North America and Europe have established
psychology programs.
Approaches
Very much like physics, experiments and simulations/modelling are
the main research tools in psychology . Often, the predictions of the models
are directly compared to human behaviour. With the convenience of access and
wide use of brain imaging techniques, psychology has seen increasing influence
of neuroscience over the past decade. There are currently three main approaches
in psychology : experimental cognitive psychology, computational psychology ,
and neural psychology .
Experimental psychology treats psychology together of the natural sciences and
applies experimental methods to research human cognition. Psychophysical
responses, reaction time, and eye tracking are often measured in experimental
psychology. MPC 001 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Computational
psychology develops formal mathematical and computational models of human
cognition supported symbolic and subsymbolic representations, and dynamical
systems. Neural psychology uses brain imaging and neurobiological methods to
know the neural basis of human cognition. The three approaches are often
inter-linked and supply both independent and complementary insights in every
sub-domain of psychology.
Sub-domains of psychology
Traditionally, psychology includes human perception, attention,
learning, memory, concept formation, reasoning, judgment and decision-making,
problem solving, and language processing. For some, social and cultural
factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, evolutionary approaches have
also become a part of psychology.
2.
Critically discuss Sternberg’s Information processing approach.
Information processing is the change (processing) of information in
any manner detectable by an observer. As such, it is a process that describes
everything that happens (changes) in the universe, from the falling of a rock
(a change in position) to the printing of a text file from a digital computer
system. In the latter case, an information processor (the printer) is changing
the form of presentation of that text file (from bytes to glyphs).The computers
up to this period function on the basis of programmes saved in the memory, they
have no intelligence of their own.
Sternberg's theory of intelligence is made up of three different
components: creative, analytical, and practical abilities (Sternberg &
Sternberg, 2012). Creativeness is the ability to have new original ideas, and
being analytical can help a person decide whether the idea is a good one or
not. "Practical abilities are used to implement the ideas and persuade
others of their value" (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012 p. 21). MPC
001 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In the middle of Sternberg's theory is
cognition and with that is information processing. In Sternberg's theory, he
says that information processing is made up of three different parts,
metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components
(Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). These processes move from higher-order
executive functions to lower-order functions. Metacomponents are used for
planning and evaluating problems, while performance components follow the
orders of the metacomponents, and the knowledge-acquisition component learns
how to solve the problems (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). This theory in
action can be explained by working on an art project. First is a decision about
what to draw, then a plan and a sketch. MPC 001 Solved Assignment
2021-22 During this process there is simultaneous monitoring of the
process, and whether it is producing the desired accomplishment. All these
steps fall under the metacomponent processing, and the performance component is
the art. The knowledge-acquisition portion is the learning or improving drawing
skills.
Information processing theories of intelligence offer a potentially
rich yet generally unexplored theoretical forum for conceptualizing and
investigating learning disabilities. The purpose of this article is to advance
our understanding of the nature of specific learning disabilities by using
Sternberg's (1985) triarchic theory of human intelligence as a framework for expanding
the componential-deficit approach. Specifically, deficient cognitive strategies
and inadequate knowledge in certain domains may result from learning disabled
individuals' inability to (a) selectively encode, compare, and combine
information, or (b) automatize information processing. In addition, this
article emphasizes the importance of the experiential, contextual, and
motivational history of the learning disabled individual in understanding his
or her componential deficits.
Robert Sternberg is an American psychologist and professor who is
best known for his theory on intelligence and creativity. Learn about
Sternberg's views on intelligence, information processing, the basic mental
processes, and more.
In cognitive psychology, information processing is an approach to
the goal of understanding human thinking. Information processing may more
specifically be defined in terms used by Claude E. Shannon as the conversion of
latent information into manifest information (McGonigle & Mastrian, 2011).
Latent and manifest information is defined through the terms of equivocation
(remaining uncertainty, what value the sender has actually chosen), dissipation
(uncertainty of the sender what the receiver has actually received), and
transformation (saved effort of questioning - equivocation minus dissipation)
(Denning and Bell, 2012).
Within the field of cognitive psychology, information processing is
an approach to the goal of understanding human thinking in relation to how they
process the same kind of information as computers (Shannon & Weaver, 1963).
It arose in the 1940s and 1950s, after World War II (Sternberg & Sternberg,
2012). MPC 001 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The essence of the
approach is to see cognition as being in essence computational in nature, with mind
being the software and the brain being the hardware. The information processing
approach in psychology is closely allied to the Computational theory of mind in
philosophy; it is also related, though not identical, to cognitivism in
psychology and functionalism in philosophy (Horst, 2011).
Information processing can be sequential or parallel, which can
both be either centralized or decentralized (distributed). The parallel
distributed processing in mid-1980s became popular under the name
connectionism. In early 1950s Friedrich Hayek was ahead of his time when he
posited the idea of spontaneous order in the brain arising out of decentralized
networks of simple units (neurons). IGNOU MPC 001 Solved
Assignment 2021-22 However, Hayek is rarely cited in the literature of
connectionism. The connectionist network is made up different nodes, and it
works by a "priming effect," and this happens when a "prime node
activates a connected node" (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). But
"unlike in semantic networks, it is not a single node that has a specific
meaning, but rather the knowledge is represented in a combination of
differently activated nodes"(Goldstein, as cited in Sternberg, 2012).
According to Robert Sternberg's theory, there are three basic
mental processes that underlie all intelligent behavior. The three basic mental
processes are:
Although what is viewed as intelligent in one culture might not be
viewed as intelligent in another, the basic mental processes are the same
across different cultures.
Metacomponents are the executive processes that we use to solve problems, plan what to do, make decisions, and evaluate outcomes. Performance components carry out the directions of the metacomponents. MPC 001 Solved Assignment 2021-22 It is performance components that allow us to store information in short-term memory, compare two concepts, compare solutions to the task, etc. Knowledge-acquisition components are what we use to learn and store new information. In other words, metacomponents tell us what to do, performance components actually do it, and knowledge-acquisition components make sure we learn things along the way.
For example, you may plan to read a book - that involves
metacomponents. When you grab a book off the shelf and actually read it, that
involves performance components. If you learn new vocabulary words while reading,
that involves knowledge-acquisition components.
3.
Explain the concept of IQ. Describe the history of measurement of intelligence.
IQ, short for intelligence quotient, is a measure of a person’s
reasoning ability. In short, it is supposed to gauge how well someone can use
information and logic to answer questions or make predictions. IQ tests begin
to assess this by measuring short- and longterm memory. They also measure how
well people can solve puzzles and recall information they’ve heard — and how
quickly.
Every student can learn, no matter how intelligent. But some
students struggle in school because of a weakness in one specific area of
intelligence. These students often benefit from special education programs.
There, they get extra help in the areas where they’re struggling. IQ tests can
help teachers figure out which students would benefit from such extra help.
IQ tests also can help identify students who would do well in
fast-paced “gifted education” programs. Many colleges and universities also use
exams similar to IQ tests to select students. And the U.S. government — including
its military — uses IQ tests when choosing who to hire. These tests help
predict which people would make good leaders, or be better at certain specific
skills.
It’s tempting to read a lot into someone’s IQ score. Most
non-experts think intelligence is the reason successful people do so well.
Psychologists who study intelligence find this is only partly true. MPC
001 Solved Assignment 2021-22 IQ tests can predict how well people
will do in particular situations, such as thinking abstractly in science,
engineering or art. Or leading teams of people. But there’s more to the story.
Extraordinary achievement depends on many things. And those extra categories
include ambition, persistence, opportunity, the ability to think clearly — even
luck.
According to Huitt (2003), there are a few basic principles that
most cognitive psychologists agree with:
The mental system has limited capacities, i.e. bottlenecks in the
flow and processing of information, occur at very specific points
A control mechanism is required to oversee the encoding,
transformation, processing, storage, retrieval and utilization of information.
This control mechanism requires itself processing power and that varies in
function of the difficulty of the task.
There is a two-way flow of information. Sensory input is combined
with information stored in memory in order to construct meaning.
The human organism has been genetically prepared to process and
organize information in specific ways.
The first modern intelligence test in IQ history was developed in
1904, by Alfred Binet (1857-1911) and Theodore Simon (1873-1961). MPC
001 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The French Ministry of Education asked
these researchers to develop a test that would allow for distinguishing mentally
retarded children from normally intelligent, but lazy children. The result was
the Simon-Binet IQ test. This IQ test consists of several components such as
logical reasoning, finding rhyming words and naming objects.
The score for the IQ test in combination with a child's age,
provides information on the intellectual development of the child: is the child
ahead of or lagging other children? The IQ was calculated as (mental
age/chronological age) X 100. The test came to be a huge success, both in
Europe and America.
The key assumption behind evolutionary epistemology is that animals
are active learners or ‘knowers’. In the present study, I updated the concept
of natural learning, developed by Henry Plotkin and John Odling-Smee, by
expanding it from the animal-only territory to the biosphere-as-a-whole
territory. In the new interpretation of natural learning the concept of
biological information, guided by Peter Corning’s concept of “control
information”, becomes the ‘glue’ holding the organism–environment interactions
together. The control information guides biological systems, from bacteria to
ecosystems, in the process of natural learning executed by the universal
algorithm. This algorithm, summarized by the acronym IGPT
(information-gain-process-translate) incorporates natural cognitive methods
including sensing/perception, memory, communication, and decision-making.
Finally, the biosphere becomes the distributed network of communicative
interactions between biological systems termed the interactome. MPC 001
Solved Assignment 2021-22 The concept of interactome is based on Gregory
Bateson’s natural epistemology known as the “ecology of mind”. Mimicking
Bateson’s approach, the interactome may also be designated “physiology of
mind”—the principle behind regulating the biosphere homeostasis.
The universal capacity of organisms, from bacteria to animals, to
actively sense their local environments and adjust to them intelligently,
reflects the universal capacity to learn (Plotkin 1982; Bradie 1986; Gontier
2006; Watson et al. 2015; Watson and Szathmáry 2016; Bradie and Harms 2017). In
the evolutionary sense, all organisms are active learners or ‘knowers’. The
processes behind natural learning are at the heart of evolutionary
epistemology. According to the branch of evolutionary epistemology known as EEM
(evolutionary epistemology mechanisms): (1) organisms are knowledge systems,
(2) evolution is the process of knowledge acquisition and (3) there are
features shared by all forms of the evolutionary knowledge acquisition (Plotkin
1982).
Learning enables organisms to intelligently adjust to local
environments and calls for further learning and further adjustments—organisms
are engaged in an endless process of natural epistemology or biological
intelligence (Slijepcevic 2018). Furthermore, the process of learning is not
one sided. MPC 001 Solved Assignment 2021-22 As organisms learn about
their local environments and adjust to them, local environments become their
learning partners (Lewontin 1978; Okasha 2005). Local environments, represented
by diverse groups of organisms, learn about adjusting actions of their
organismal partners and intelligently adjust to their partners’ adjustments.
This is the biosphere-wide cybernetic process that includes all species and all
organisms (Bateson 1979). In this process, organisms of the same species
communicate with each other through natural languages (Ben-Jacob 1998;
Ben-Jacob et al. 2004) and different forms of semiosis (i.e. habits, codes), as
they are at work in ecological systems and explored by contemporary
biosemiotics (Kull et al. 2008). On the other hand, organisms from different
species communicate through the process of crosskingdom communication based on
biosemiotics (McFall-Ngai et al. 2013; Jarosz et al. 2014).
Given that the nature of communicative interactions is cybernetic
or informational, biological information becomes an essential ingredient in the
process of natural learning. The role of information in natural learning
featured prominently in writings of EEM proponents (e.g. Plotkin 1982; Plotkin
and Odling-Smee 1982). However, very little can be found in the EEM literature
about the actual concept of biological information and how this concept
integrates into the process of natural learning.
The aim of the present paper is to integrate the original EEM’s
understanding of natural learning by Plotkin (1982) and Plotkin and Odling-Smee
(1982) with cybernetic, information theory and systems theory views, using
bacteria as a model system. I start by presenting the EEM’s take on the concept
of information and the role of information in natural learning (Sect. 2). I
then outline the concept of biological information that combines information
theory and its more recent derivatives appropriate for biological systems, in
particular, “control information” of Corning (2007) (Sect. 3) and information
processing by bacteria (Ben-Jacob 1998, 2009; Ben-Jacob et al. 2004) (Sect. 4).
In the final part of the paper (Sect. 5), I present a synthetic outlook of
information processing and natural learning in biological systems.
This chapter discusses measuring of intelligence by Francis Galton,
J. McK. Cattell, and Alfred Binet. Charles Spearman abhorred the program that
would separate the mind into a loose confederation of independent faculties of
learning, memory and attention. Although most intelligence researchers today
probably accept that the general factor is to stay, they remain sharply divided
on its explanation. MPC 001 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These
disagreements go well beyond a rejection of Spearman's specific suggestions
that g is either mental energy or the eduction of relations and correlates.
Spearman saw that he needed to provide a psychological or (better still) a
neurobiological explanation of g. The two favorite paradigms for this program
of research were inspection time (IT) and choice reaction time (RT). Aided by
the new technologies of brain imaging, research on intelligence, working
memory, and other so-called executive functions has begun to point to some of
the brain structures common to them all.
SECTION – B
Answer
the following questions in 400 words each.
5 x 5 = 25 marks
4.
Describe the principles of information processing.
5.
Explain the cellular bases of learning and memory.
6.
Discuss Spearman’s Two-factor theory of intelligence.
7.
Define creativity. Discuss the measurement of creativity.
8.
Explain the basic concepts of multilingualism.
SECTION
– C
Answer
the following questions in 50 words each.
10 x 3 = 30 marks
9.
Nature vs. Nurture
10.Neuroscience
and cognitive psychology
11.Miller’s
magic number
12.Encoding,
Storage and Retrieval
13.Knowledge base in PASS theory
14.Spatial
intelligence
15.Algorithms
16.Problem
space
17.Functional
fixedness
18.Backward
search
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